Children
Nervous system
- Encephalopathy [brain
disease] (1,
2,
3,
4,
20,
35)
- Acute encephalopathy (11)
- Alters function of
developing brain (16)
- Alters electroencephalogram
[EEG] (16)
- Convulsions (1,
2,
3,
4)
- Cerebral Palsy (1)
- Neurotransmitter release
disrupted (11)
Peripheral nervous system
- Peripheral nerve
disturbances [reduced touch sensitivity] (2,
3,
4,
5,
6,
18)
- Slowed nerve conduction
velocity [decreased reaction times] (2,
14,
18,
35,
39,
58)
- Foot/ hand drop (1,
3)
- Proprioreceptive pathways
involved in balance altered (2)
- Dizziness (1,
4,
38)
Growth & development
- Delayed neurodevelopment
[e.g. in sitting up, walking, talking] (2,
58)
- Stature and growth rate
reduction (1,
2,
3,
18,
35,
39)
- Impaired pituitary-thyroid
endocrine system (18,
21)
- Osteoporosis in later years
(43)
- Weight loss (58)
Cognitive development
- I.Q. levels decrease (1,
2,
3,
4,
5,
6,
15,
24,
35,
36,
39,
41,
58)
- Cognitive function deficits
(2,
26,
33)
- Verbal function /
linguistic deficits ( 2,
14,
15)
- Learning difficulties (11,
15,
35)
- Decreased educational
performance (35)
- Decreased reading, maths,
non-verbal reasoning ability & short term
memory, even at blood lead levels less than
10µg/dL (41)
- Autism (7) in genetically predisposed
individuals with metallothionein dysfunction (42)
Behaviour
- Aggression, violence,
hostility, anti-social or delinquent behaviour (8,
26)
- Attention problems;
distractibility, restlessness (8,
12,
15,
21,
38,
58)
- Externalising and
internalising behaviours (8)
- Hyperactive behaviours,
difficult to manage (1,
2,
8)
- Inappropriate /
uncontrolled behaviours similar to ADD
behaviours, increased frequency (2,
11)
- Irritability (1,
38)
- Lethargy (1)
- Increased school
absenteeism (35)
Hearing
- Hearing impairment;
auditory sensitivity decreased (2,
3,
5,
10,
14,
18,
21,
26,
32,
35,
39,
58)
- Auditory evoked response
patterns altered (2)
- Auditory processing altered
(2,
10)
Sight
- Retinal degeneration (6,
10)
- Depressed sensitivity of
rod photoreceptors (10)
- Perceptual function
deficits (2,
21)
- Visuo-spatial skills
deficit [eg jigsaws] (15)
Movement and muscular
- Visual-motor skills
deficits [hand-eye coordination] (2,
3,
15,
26)
- Fine motor dysfunction (1,
2,
3)
- Motor function deficits (2)
- Impaired muscular strength
and endurance (26)
- Paralysis (3)
- Somatic complaints [aches
and pains] (8,
38)
Digestive system
- Impaired Vitamin D
metabolism [affecting bone remodelling, mineral
absorption and calcium uptake] (2,
3,
6,
18,
24,
35,
38,
39,
58)
- Colic (3,
25,
35)
- Loss of appetite (1,
2)
- Vomiting (1,
4)
- Constipation, diarrhoea,
anorexia (38,
58)
- Abdominal cramps (39, 58)
Renal (kidneys), blood and
circulation
- Renal disease – acute
nephropathy (14,
21,
35,
38,
58)
- Queensland nephritis (14)
- Anaemia (1,
2,
3,
4,
5,
6,
35,
38,
58)
Death (1,
2,
3,
4,
19,
35,
46,
58)
Perinatal Development and
Reproductive Health Effects
Foetal
- Preimplantation loss (3)
- Miscarriage, still birth,
neonatal death (2,
3,
4,
5,
18,
20,
24,
31,
47)
- Reduced gestational age,
preterm birth (1,
2,
3,
5,
18,
24)
- Reduced birth weight (1,
2,
3,
4,
5,
6,
18,
19)
- Minor congenital /
chromosomal anomalies (2,
3,
4,
18,
31)
- Reproductive abnormalities;
disorders (5,
13,
38)
- Decreased placental
functioning (19)
- Lead passed via placenta to
foetus from mother (39,
58)
Adults
- Altered testicular
functioning (24)
- Hypospermia [low sperm
count] (3,
5,
19,
47)
- Asthenospermia [sperm
weakness] (3,
5,
20)
- Teratospermia [sperm
abnormalities] (3,
5,
31)
- Erectile dysfunction,
impotence (3,
40)
- Decreased serum
testosterone (3)
- Lead presence in seminal
fluid (31)
- Pituitary effects (31)
- Sterility, infertility (5,
31,
35,
39,
58)
- Effects on ovaries (19)
- Decreased libido / sex
drive (2,
21,
31)
- Impotence (31)
Kidneys
- Renal damage (2,
3,
5,
13,
14,
21,
23,
24,
28,
30,
34,
39,
58)
- Chronic lead nephropathy
[kidney disease] (2,
3,
14,
21,
22,
24,
38,
58)
- Death from nephritis
[kidney inflammation] (29,
30)
- Fanconi Syndrome (14)
- Gout (2,
3,
14)
- Renal hypertension (17)
- Increase in creatinine
concentration (23)
Nervous system
- Encephalopathy [brain
disease] (2,
4,
20,
24,
25,
34)
- Cerebrovascular diseases,
stroke, cerebral haemorrhage (2,
27,
28,
29,
30)
- Psychomotor impairment (13,
34)
- Peripheral nervous system
impairment [eg wrist-drop] (13,
24,
40,
47)
- Peripheral Arterial Disease(53, 54)
- Slowed nerve conduction
velocity [slowed reaction time] (2,
34, 58)
- Tremor (25,
26,
38,
40,
55)
- Paresthesia, paralysis (25)
Cardiovascular and
circulation
- Hypertension, elevated
blood pressure (2,
14,
17,
22,
35,
38,
40,
58)
- Increased systolic blood
pressure in men (35)
- Cardio-toxic effects (14)
- Increased risk of
cardiovascular disease (17)
- Coronary artery disease (2)
- Anaemia; falling
haemoglobin levels (2,
3,
5,
13,
24,
35,
38,
39,
47,
58)
- Platelet dysfunction (2)
- Increased erythrocyte [red
blood cell] protoporphyrin (35)
- Increased ALA in urine (34)
- Increased protoporphyrin in
urine (34)
- Increased risk of early death from
heart attack or stroke (46)
Intellectual and mental
- Depression (2,
13,
38)
- Anxiety (38)
- Personality changes (34)
- Death from violence,
suicide, accidents (29)
- Impaired concentration (19,
25,
34,
38)
- Deficits in short term
memory (2,
13,
19,
34,
38)
- Cognitive function deficit (58)
Behaviour
- Fatigue, muscular
exhaustion (2,
19,
25,
34,
38,
47)
- Sleep disturbance, insomnia
(19)
- Irritability, agitation,
restlessness, aggression (2,
13,
19,
24,
34,
47,
58)
Sensory
- Abnormalities in visuomotor
coordination (2)
- Abnormalities in fine motor
control (2)
- Deficits in visual acuity (2)
- Hearing loss (18,
35,
39,
47,
58)
- Somatosensory dysfunction
[eg deficits in detection of vibration, changes
in temperature] (2,
23)
Gastrointestinal / Digestive
- Effects on gastrointestinal
tract (24)
- Loss of appetite (19,
40)
- Nausea (19)
- Constipation, diarrhoea (25,
38)
- Abdominal pain, cramps (25,
34,
40,
47)
- Weight loss, anorexia (25,
38)
Bone, muscle and joint
- Bone marrow alterations (21)
- Myalgia [muscle pain] (25,
38,
40,
58)
- Pain in buttocks and cramps in the
legs as early stages of peripheral arterial
diseases (53, 54)
- Muscular weakness (34,
38,
39,
40,
47)
- Arthralgia [joint pain] (25,
38,
40,
47)
- Bone marrow alterations (21)
- Bone lead mobilisation during
menopause leads to decreased neurocognitive
performance and increased systolic blood pressure
in post-menopausal women (44)
- Wrist drop [the inability to hold
the hand extended] (47)
- Long term effect: linked to
osteoporosis which has symptoms of decline in
bone density and increase risk in fractures, also
inhibit normal fracture healing (48, 49 ,50, 51, 52)
Other
- Headaches (2,
19,
21,
40,
47)
- Decreased longevity (35,
39)
- Adrenal dysfunction (38)
- Teeth with blueblack-lines
near gum base (38,
40)
- Pallor (40)
- Cell damage (at blood lead level
between 20 to 30 mg/dL for men
and between 10 to 20 mg/dL for
women) (39)
- Probable human carcinogen (56, 57)
Death (2,
4,
19,
39,
46)
- Increased risk of early death from
cancer and all other causes (46)
Effects of lead from animal
studies
- Impaired attention,
learning and short-term memory in primates (12)
- Behavioural impairment;
inflexibility in behavioural change in primates (12)
- Elevated blood pressure at
moderate levels (17)
- Impaired immune system in
new-borns of rats fed lead [greater
susceptibility to asthma ] (37, 45)
- Increased incidence of tumors
(cancer) in rats born to mothers fed lead (45)
- Altered response to
stimulant drugs; attenuation of drug induced
hyperactivity in rats (2)
- Impaired attention, learning and
short-term memory in primates (12)
- Teratogenic effect causing birth
deformities (4)
- Low bone density in lab animals
such as mice and fractures due to lead-induced
osteoporosis do not heal properly (52)
References
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& Sors, A. (1989). Lead exposure and
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